Roman Festivals and Public Holidays

In ancient Rome, festivals and holidays were important days for the people to come together and perform religious rituals. Since the Roman calendar didn’t have weekends, these feriae (holidays) would provide days of rest from people’s regular routine.

There were three kinds of Roman holidays:

Conceptivae: These annual holidays had no marked or fixed dates. Instead, religious leaders determined the dates every year.
Imperativae: Political or religious leaders, like priests, could call for special holidays during specific events.
Stativae: These were annual festivals celebrated on marked dates every year, such as Saturnalia and Lupercalia.

Since conceptivae and imperativae holidays could change from year to year, this article will focus on the four main stativae holidays. Then, we’ll take a look at the activities that the people engaged in while celebrating festivals in ancient Rome.

Four Main Roman Festivals and Holidays

Liberalia

In ancient Rome, the god of freedom, male fertility, and wine was named Liber, or Liber Pater. On March 17, the Romans celebrated Liberalia in honor of the god and his consort, Libera. During this festival, the people would offer sacrifices, hang masks on trees, recite songs, and march on the street.

But Liberalia was more than a holiday; it marked the day when young boys became men. Boys about 15 to 16 years old would remove their amulet, called bulla praetexta, and place it on an altar, tied with their hair. The bulla was offered to Lares, the deity of family and household.

Saturnalia

Saturnalia was celebrated for an entire week from December 17 to December 23 every year. Initially, under the Julian Calendar, Saturnalia was celebrated only on December 17, but it was later extended.

This holiday honored the god of agriculture, called Saturn. It was quite similar to the Christian holiday, Christmas, since it also involved:

Decorating the houses and streets
Lighting candles
Giving gifts to loved ones
Singing and enjoying wine and food

While many believe that Christmas might have originated or been inspired by Saturnalia, there’s no real evidence to support this.

During the Saturnalia festival, the Romans would also offer sacrifices at the Temple of Saturn, enjoy a public banquet, and shout “Io, Saturnalia!” On one of the festival days, household masters would exchange roles with their workers. The enslaved people would also be allowed to march on the streets and even engage in gambling with dice.

Ludi Romani

The “games of the Romans,” or Ludi Romani, was a festival conducted annually from September 4 to September 19 in ancient Rome. The festival included various games, such as athletic competitions, chariot races, and animal hunts. Later, Ludi included gladiatorial combat and theatrical performances.

Besides the entertainment value, the people played these games to honor Jupiter, the chief Roman deity and the god of the sky. The games initially lasted one day, but more days were added with the Augustan era calendar.

Lupercalia

Lupercalia was conducted yearly on February 15. It was aimed at purifying the city while promoting fertility and health.

On this day, the high priest would sacrifice a male goat and a dog at the Lupercal Cave. The sacrifice reflected ancient Romans’ belief that Romulus and Remus — the founders of Rome — were suckled by a she-wolf at Lupercal.

After the sacrifice, the high priest would touch the foreheads of the two Luperci (other priests involved in the celebration) with the blood on the sacrificial knife. After this, they were to laugh loudly and run around the city, striking people with a thong made from the goat’s skin. The whipping was believed to make the struck women fertile.

Roman Festival Activities

The Roman festivals were marked with processions, sacrifices, games, and feasts. People would dress in fine clothes and march on the streets, going to the temple and back. During the procession, they would leave offerings and chant songs to seek favor from the gods.

Priests and the citizens would also make animal sacrifices to show respect and devotion to the gods. The sacrifices were meant to please the deities while asking them to hear and answer various pleas.

Besides the processions and sacrifices, the people would indulge in games (ludi) and competitions for entertainment. These included horse races, combat, and even light-hearted gambling with dice and board games. Though the gambling wasn’t as organized as what you’d see nowadays on the Vegas Strip or even at live dealer casinos in the UK, the social and gambling spirit was similar.

After the religious activities, games, and entertainment, the people would wind up the festivals with feasts, music, and live performances. They gathered around to enjoy festive foods and libations.

The Importance of Ancient Roman Holidays

Foster Unity Within the Community

These festivals and holidays brought people together, uniting them around religious and cultural practices. Feasting, processions, singing together, and giving gifts strengthened the sense of belonging and community. The social gatherings, like public banquets, provided opportunities for Romans to socialize.

Relaxation and Entertainment

Since there were no weekends in ancient Rome, the holidays offered a time of rest and relaxation. People would also enjoy music, food, and wine. The games, performances, and competitions entertained the masses. Others engaged in light gambling activities to pass the time and hopefully make some profits.

Honoring the Gods

Crucially, these festivals honored the ancient Roman gods, and people believed that the practice would keep them safe from evil spirits and calamities. They ensured that the Romans respected and maintained their relationships with Lares (household spirits) and the gods.

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Julius Caesar Julius Caesar, a brilliant general and statesman, played a critical role in the shift from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire.

Augustus Augustus, the first Roman emperor, ushered in an era of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana.

Tiberius Succeeding Augustus, Tiberius, a skilled military leader, became a controversial emperor known for both stability and a later reign of terror.

Caligula Caligula, notorious for his cruelty and extravagance, ruled Rome for just four chaotic years.

Claudius Overcoming a reputation for disability, Claudius proved to be a capable emperor who expanded the Roman Empire and improved its infrastructure.

Nero Nero, the last emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, is remembered for both his early promise and later descent into tyranny.

Galba Galba, a seasoned aristocrat who rose to power after Nero's suicide, faced a turbulent reign marked by financial woes and military discontent.

Otho Ruling for only three months in the tumultuous Year of the Four Emperors, Otho seized power but was defeated and committed suicide.

Vitellius Briefly holding power in 69 AD during the Year of the Four Emperors, Vitellius was known for his indulgence and was ultimately overthrown and killed.

Vespasian Rising from humble beginnings, Vespasian restored stability to the Roman Empire after a civil war and launched an ambitious building program.

Titus Son of Vespasian, Titus became emperor known for both his ruthless conquest of Jerusalem and his generosity during disasters.

Domitian Domitian, the last Flavian emperor, strengthened the Roman Empire's borders and economy but was seen as a tyrant by the Senate.

Nerva Nerva, the first of the Five Good Emperors, ushered in a new era of stability after a period of violence.

Trajan Renowned for his military conquests and public works projects, Trajan led the Roman Empire to its greatest territorial extent.

Hadrian Hadrian, a philhellene emperor known for Hadrian's Wall, consolidated the Roman Empire and focused on internal development.

Antoninus Pius Antoninus Pius, known for his peaceful reign and devotion to public works, was considered one of the Five Good Emperors.

Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius, the last of the Five Good Emperors, was both a philosopher king and a stoic leader who fought relentlessly to defend the Roman Empire.

Commodus Son of Marcus Aurelius, his reign marked the end of the Pax Romana and is often considered the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire.

Pertinax A short-lived emperor, he ruled for just three months before being assassinated by the Praetorian Guard.

Didius Julianus Bought the throne in an auction held by the Praetorian Guard, his reign lasted just over two months before he was killed.

Septimius Severus Founder of the Severan dynasty, he secured his position after defeating his rivals in a civil war.

Caracalla Known for issuing the Antonine Constitution, granting Roman citizenship to all free men in the Empire.

Geta Co-ruled with his brother Caracalla, but was murdered by him after their father’s death.

Macrinus A usurper who became emperor after arranging the assassination of Caracalla. He was overthrown and killed.

Elagabalus Known for his eccentric and controversial religious practices, he was eventually assassinated by the Praetorian Guard.

Severus Alexander The last emperor of the Severan dynasty, his reign ended when he was assassinated by his own troops, marking the start of the Crisis of the Third Century.

Maximinus Thrax Learn how his military background, brutal tactics, and short-lived rule marked the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century.